The Nehruvian Era

• The Indian Foreign Policy that came to be developed was under the leadership of Nehru. Nehru nurtured and shaped the IFP
• When India became independent, it was economically and militarily underdeveloped
• It was imperative, at that moment, to evolve the right set of priorities
• India had to make a choice of either developing the state militarily or economically.
• Nehru took the path of economic strength as he realised that focus on military development will lead to unstable politics.
• The Nehruvian perspective was that economic strength will create a strong military base
• Nehru, therefore, shifted India’s focus on industrial development.

Kashmir Issue

• In 1946 – India form Interim government.
• In 1947 – Indian get freedom, also princely states can join India or Pakistan or Being Autonomy.
• Sardar Vallabhahai Patel – Take step to join all Princely state to India.
• Kashmir (Raja Hari sing) Being Independence. Nizam of Hyderabad want to join Pakistan (So by Military action capture Hyderabad), King of Junagar want to Join Pakistan (So conduct Plebicide to People, People vote to join India).
• In September, Pakistan tribal attack Gilgit & Baltistan. Raja Hari sing ask Nehru to help.
• Nehru not help because Kashmir is not a part of India, So Raja hari sing join India & ask for special autonomy to Kashmir.
• Indian army attack on October and stop Pakistan.
• India is in Economically weak can’t afford a war, so Nehru bring Problem to UN.
• UN Say
• Ceasefire Line (Now Line of Control).
• Pakistan should Evacuate.
• Plebicide/Referendum should conduct.

UN create UNMOGIP (United Nation Military Observer Group for India & Pakistan) control Ceasefire Line

• 1949 – Karachi Agreement, Constitution keep Kashmir as special Status (Article 370) – Own government.

• Shake Abdulla (Kashmir Congress Head) – Convince Raja Hari sing to Join India on Pakistan attack.
• Shake Abdulla → Faruk Abdulla → Umar Abdulla.
• 1949 -1989 – India & Pakistan problem goes Peacefully.

Why USA wanted Pakistan

• Cold War – USA think India is disintegrating soon. Also support for Pakistan to not get close to Russia (Russia does not access to port, So Russia need Afghanistan & Pakistan to access to Indian ocean).
• Nehru not join any side (USA 7 Russia) – Non-Alignment.
• Power Center shifted after WW-II. Britain, France & Germany → USA (Capitalist) & USSR (Communist - Now Russia). Capitalist country aligns to USA & Communist Country align to Russia.
• USA & Russia start Cold War (Ex: South Korea & North Korea). Colonial nations are weakening because of WW-II.
• USA introduce many treaty NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), SEATO (South east Asian Treaty Organisation), CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) to get Asian Country Support.

Non-Alignment

Non-Alignment is Positive Neutralism. Neutralism is standing in center; Positive neutralism is standing in Correct side

• Nehru steered the country through the prism of the Cold War without sacrificing the quest for India’s strategic autonomy.
• During the Cold War, when the USA and the USSR were trying to bring other states into their ideological orbit,
• Nehru was against ideologisation,
• Nehru, in order to shield India from predatory international powers, made a decision to join the Commonwealth as a security guarantee.
• Joining the Commonwealth in no way affected India’s quest for strategic autonomy in the international affairs.
• Nehru clarified that the art of conducting foreign policy is about asserting the national interests of India.
• IFP’s immediate roots lay in the Indian struggle for independence against the British.
• It was during the Indian National Movement that India declared its commitment to fight imperialism and colonialism and support the unity of all nations struggling to fight imperialism and colonialism.
• The period after the World War-II saw the decline of imperialism and rise of arms race between the USA and the USSR which ultimately became nuclear in nature during the Cold War.
• India, being a non-communist country, was not welcomed in the Soviet bloc.
• India on its part did not entertain any intentions of joining the Communist bloc either.
• Joining the US bloc was out of the question as India perceived USA as a mouth piece for capitalism which it believed to be a form of neo imperialism.

Strategic Autonomy

• For India, its priority was to have an independent foreign policy.
• An independent foreign policy involved interactions with all players of the system while retaining the ability to make one’s own decisions regarding one’s own issues.
• India, under Nehru, displayed a suitable combination of assertion and non-violenceby maintaining positive neutralismthrough non-alignment.
• Freedom to decide each issue on its merits without bias and prejudice, weigh what was right or wrong and then take the stand towards the right
• Non-alignment emerged as the sister policy of the non-violent Satyagraha movement pioneered by Gandhi
• The basis of non-alignment was the ancient Indian philosophy of looking at reality from different prisms and recognising that reality is not merely black and white and that it could have many shades of grey

Asian Relations Conference

• In March 1947, 20 countries participated.
• Tone of conference was Asian Independence and assertion in world stage.
• In Dec 1948 the second conference was convened to address Dutch’s decision to recolonize Indonesia.
• Nehru got the resolution passed to cut off shipping and trade links with Dutch and sent the resolution to UNSC.
• Which eventually led to ceasefire and restoration.
• As an extension to this conference, Afro- Asian Conference was convened in Bandung, Indonesia.
• This acted as a precursor to Belgrade conference of 1961 to Establish NAM, with objective of,
• Peace
• Nuclear Disarmament
• Non Alignment

Korean War

• First arena of cold war, North Korea was with USSR and South Korea was with USA
• In 1950, North Invaded South, India supported USA in UNSC and called North an aggressor and called for cease fire, but abstained from voting for setting up a Unified Command
• Unified Command under USA crossed 38th parallel and occupied till Chinese border
• China retaliated and pushed back USA
• USA called for UNSC resolution to call China as aggressor but India voted against it as USA was the real one
• Krishna Menon formula for resettlement and repatriation.
• Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission was formed.
• Korean War tested India’s Non alignment.
• Food aids from USA and Chinese invasion of Tibet didn’t Influence India during the votes.

North & South Korea War

• North Korea attack South Korea by USSR Support.
• India Vote against USSR.
• USA support South Korea (to form army) attack the North Korea.
• India Vote against USA.
• South Korea attack North Korea and come near to china border, so china retaliates back USA army.
• India Vote against USA.
• Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission was formed.

Suez Crisis

• In 1956, US and Britain pressurised Egypt to abandon NAM policy. They revoked financial aid for construction of Aswan Dam in Nile
• This irked Egypt and led to Nationalisation of Suez Canal
• France and Britain were alarmed and demanded International Control over it
• India, a major user recognised Egyptian rights based on Constantinople Convention, 1888
• In London Conference India suggested a formula, With Egyptian control of canal and advisory role to users and settlement of dispute based on UN principles
• It was widely accepted by many nations including Egypt
• But France and Britain got Israel to invade Egypt and landed troops in Suez
• It got worldwide condemnation, Including from UN, USA and India
• After UN resolution, the withdrawal took place with Indian troops and peace keeping forces.

• Suez Canal controlled by USA & Britain
• Suez Canal is in Egypt; Egypt government follow non alignment.
• So Egypt Government say Nationalised the canal and say start charging the ship cross the canal.
• The problem goes to UN, at the same time UK & France does not like Nationalisation of canal, so support Israel to attack Egypt and capture Suez Canal. Israel capture Egypt.
• India stance against UK, and say solution at London Conference is Egyptian control of canal and advisory role to users work on UN principle & Give back the land capture by Israel.

USA

• India wanted technology, machines and aid for its development effort and food for its people, moral support for national building and democratic efforts
• But USA took side of Pakistan and acted against India in Kashmir issue in UNSC due to following reasons
1. USA inherited the British’s dislike of congress and had positive attitude towards Pakistan due to pro-British Nature of Muslim league
2. They thought India won’t survive long due to its diversity and complications hence feared investments.
3. IFP, especially NAM and Korean war efforts.
4. India’s support to Communist China (for who is official member of UN, China or Taiwan)
5. USA offered military assistance to Pakistan to contain USSR spread.
6. Vehemently criticised India for annexation of Goa from Portugal (Military Action of Goa).

USSR

• Initial Suspicion – perception that India is still under Imperial Influence as India joined commonwealth and took NAM stance.
• Later, India’s stance in Korean crisis impressed USSR took away the suspicion
• Russia provided food aid and offered friendship treaty.
• Later when Pakistan joined USA block, USSR decided to offer military assistance and support to India in Kashmir issue.
• USSR supported India during integration of Goa.
• Economic Assistance
• Five year plans
• Bhilai Steel plant (USSR) (British - Durgapur, German – Rourkela)
• USSR remained neutral during the Indo-China war and didn’t side with Communist China.
• MiG manufacturing facility established in 1962 (Fighter Jet company).
• Friendship with India kept China at check.
• USSR considered India as Entry to Afro-Asia.

Pakistan

The Partition

• The Kashmir Issue –
• Pakistan, after independence, sent its armed forces personnel disguised as tribesmen to invade the Kashmir valley. This brought India and Pakistan into conflict with each other.
• Raja Hari Singh accepted the instrument of accession and sided with India
• India sent its troops and prevented Pakistani march and took over Srinagar
• To complain about the Pakistani aggression, India, on advice of the British, the matter to the UN Security Council.
• The western powers led by the USA were determined on getting an unfavourable resolution passed at the UNSC against India.
• They wanted to favour Pakistan for allowing its territory to be used by the West to contain the Soviets. The USA, for that matter, had urged Turkey and Pakistan to sign a mutual defence treaty which was followed by the creation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) in 1954 and Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) in 1955.
• Pakistan emerged as a member of both SEATO and CENTO, thereby bringing Cold War politics right to India’s doorsteps.
• In order to strengthen the case of Pakistan, the West started to support Pakistan outright at the Security Council.
• This compelled India to deter Western action by tilting towards Soviets and compelling the Soviets to use their veto power in the Council.
• In fact, the Kashmir issue and the Soviets veto brought India and the USSR closer. This proximity deepened in 1954 when Nikita Khrushchev on a visit to India visited Kashmir and asserted it to be an integral part of India.
• It is not wrong to conclude that the Kashmir issue led to qualitative Improvements in Indo–Soviet relations.

Few Successes

• Restoration of Women abducted during partition.
• Indus Water Treaty 1960 by World Bank.
• Western River – Indus, Jhelum & Chenab for Pakistan (India only done run of the river project).
• Eastern River -  Ravi, Beas Sutlej for India.

• India Started Kishanganga (Run of River) project in Jhelam. Divert Jhelam water to power house and take power and sent the water to Jhelam back.
• Initially Pakistan oppose it, so India does not do project. Later because of urea attack India doing the project.

China

• The relationship began at a peaceful note.
• India was first country to recognise People’s Republic of China and pressed for China membership in UNSC Korean war India supported China by abstaining from vote.
• Tibetan Issue – China occupied Tibet which was not welcomed by India, Patel warned Nehru regarding future Chinese aggression.
• Nehru argued that the focus of India was to maintain friendly relations with China and overlook such issues at the larger cost of friendship.
• India could not undertake any form of military adventurism in Tibet as it lacked the military strength and because the Indian army was busy on the Pakistani front post the first Indo–Pakistan war of 1947–48.
• Any intervention in Tibet by India would not make sense as Tibetan independence was not recognised internationally.
• For Nehru, clash with China was inevitable; but his priority was to postpone it and pursue peace.
• For him, peace with China was the key focus area of India’s neighborhood policy.
• He even attempted to normalise the Tibet issue and concluded the Panchsheel agreement whereby India accepted Tibet is integral part of China.
• The Panchsheel stated,
1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty,
2. Mutual non-aggression,
3. Mutual non-interference,
4. Equality and mutual benefit, and
5. Peaceful co-existence.
• In 1959, after the Tibetan revolt was crushed by China, Dalai Lama took refuge in India.
• Soon, a border issue began to brew between India and China.
• China began to feel that the 1959 Tibetan revolt could have had encouragement from the Indian side.
• This made China more hostile to India and it saw its manifestations on the border dispute.
• Perceiving no Chinese retreat from the disputed area, coupled with discovery of Chinese roads through the Aksai Chin region; India initiated a forward policy ultimately compelling the Chinese to react in October 1962.
• The Chinese reaction in the form of a strike from across the border was again miscalculated by India as it thought that the Chinese could possibly launch a full-scale offensive in the Assam hills and occupy large tracts of North-East India.
• This led India to hastily seek USA’s support where a letter from Nehru to John F. Kennedy was sent to solicit military assistance to mitigate the Chinese threat.
• The Chinese, before USA could even respond, retreated back to the old positions and observed status quo.
• The intention of the Chinese was not to launch an outright offensive with India but, to teach India a lesson and assert Chinese superiority.

• At 1954, China capture Tibet and say Aksai chin & Arunachala Pradesh is belonging to china.
• Tibet refuge come to India, India gave place at Arunachala Pradesh to stay, but china opposes it. Dalai lama – Head of Tibet.
• India accept that we don’t give Tibet to start Tibetian Government in India, but give food & land for refuge.
• Later some time china & India sign The Panchsheel, China give offer that, India Give Aksai chin to china & Take AP. India Denied it.
• In 1962 China attack on Aksai chin & AP. At the time no commanding head is there in India (President, PM, Defence Minister, Military general).
• India prepare for War & Nehru write letter to US president for help. Before letter reach to US, china set back. China attack is not for capture territory to show their power. (Because of India join QUAD).

Nehruvian Era: A look

• Decolonisation and Democratic Outlook.
• National Interest.
• Non-Align Movement.
• Positive Neutrality.
• Panchsheel Policy.
• Indo China war Miscalculations and Bring Pakistan Problem to UN.