Arrival of Islam & Delhi Sulthanate

  Advent of Arabs: The Context

• Thirteenth to the 16^th centuries (1200-1550 CE) - the arrival of Islamic institutions and Islamic culture in India
• Maritime contacts with the western and eastern coasts of India
• Were south Indian settlements in the Persian Gulf, Arabs too settled in Malabar and the Coromandel Coast.
• Military Exenditure in 712 and subsequent Ghaznavid and the Ghori Military Raids.
• the invasion of Afghanistan by Khurasan (Eastern Iran) Shah and later by Chengiz Khan severed the ties of North India Sultanate with Afghanistan. Mongol invasions destroyed the Ghurid Sulatanate and Ghazni, and cut into the resources of Sultan Nasir-ud-din Qubacha (1206-1228), the ruler of Uchch and Multan.
• Sultan Iltutmish - Expanding his influence in northern India.

Sultanate Rule (1206–1526)

1. Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
2. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451) and
5. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

The Arab Conquest of Sind

• Hajjaj Bin Yusuf - acting against the pirates, sent two military expeditions against Dahar, the ruler of Sind.
• Both were defeated and Commander killed
• Caliph’s permission, a full-fledge army, with 6000 strong cavalry, command of his son-in-law, a 17-year-old Muhammad Bin Qasim

Muhammad Bin Qasim

• Muhammad Qasim to capture Brahmanabad
• Qasim thereupon ravaged and plundered Debal for three days. Qasim called on the people of Sind to surrender, promising full protection to their faith
• Arab conquest of Sindh is “triumph without results”

Mahmud of Ghazni

• Arab empire in Central Asia Collapsed & Samanid kingdom which also Splintered.
• In 963 Alaptigin, a Turkic slave, governor in Khurasan, Seized Ghazni (Independent kingdom)
• Alaptigin, his three successor failed, the nobles enthroned Sabuktigin.
• Sabuktigin - defeated the Shahi ruler of Afghanistan, Jayapal. Held governorship of the province on Mahmud (Elder son).
• Sabuktigin died, young son Ismail become successor. But defeating Ismai in a battle, Mahmud ascended the throne & caliph acknoeledged.
• title Yamini-ud-Daulah
• Alaptigin → three failure of Sucessor → Sabuktigin → Ismai (Younger son of Sabuktigin) → Mahmud (Title Yamini-ud-Daulah, Elder son of Sabuktigin)

Mahmud’s Military Raids

• 17 Military campaign – Targeted Hindu Temple. (destruction of their places of worship)
• People become Muslims to save their lives & Properties.
• After defeating Shahi king Anandapala, Raided Mathura.
• Invasion of the temple city of Somnath (1025), Vandalising the images of deities, bought twenty million dinars.
• Though their memories went into the creation of communal divide.
• Mahmud’s plunder of the Iranian city of Ray, in 1029, bought 500,000 dinars worth of jewels, 260,000 dinars in coins, and over 30,000 dinars worth of gold and silver vessels.
• After death clashes between brothers, cousin & Uncles.
• Sultan Ibrahim ruled 42 years, his son Masud ruled 17 years. Threat from Ghuris in North & Seljuq Turks in West.
• Last ruler authority only in Lahore.
• In 1186 Ghuri prince Muizzud- din Muhammad invaded Punjab and seized Lahore.
• The last ruler Khurav Shah was imprisoned and murdered in 1192
• Al-Beruni: mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, and historian. His work Kitab Ul Hind

Muhammad Ghori

• Establish garrison towns to ensure the regular flow of plunder and tribute.
• Modern provinces of Punjab, Sind, and Haryana.
• Ghurid bandagan in North India were the slaves of Muiz-ud- Din Ghuri
• Centres of military power soon attracted the in-migration of mercenaries in search of opportunities.
• Mercenaries recruited to organize fiscal and military affairs.
• The Chalukyas of Gujarat inflicted a crushing defeat on Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu (1179).
• After defeat consolidating his position in Sind and the Punjab.

Prithviraj Chauhan

• Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda (Bhatinda), Statergic point for Chauhans of Ajmer.
• First Battle of Tarain (1191), Prithiviraj victory but fail to consolidate his position believing this battle. Ghurids make regular attacks.
• Second Battle of Tarain - Prithviraj suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually captured. Ghori restored him to his throne in Ajmer.
• Ghori’s trusted general Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as his deputy in India.

Jaya Chandra of Kanauj

• Ghari easily defeated Jaya Chandra (Kanauj Ruler) and returned to Ghazni.
• Camping on the banks of Indus, he was killed by some unidentified assassins.

Rajput Kingdoms

• 10^th Century Two powerful Rajput Kingdoms, Gurjar Prathihara and Rashtrakutas had lost their power.
• Tomaras (Delhi), Chauhans (Rajasthan), Solankis (Gujarat), Paramaras (Malwa), Gahadavalas (Kanauj) and Chandelas (Bundelkhand) had become important ruling dynasties of Northern India.
• Vighraharaja and Prithviraj, two prominent Chauhan.
• Bhoja of Paramara dynasty, Ghadavala king Jayachandra, Yasovarman, Kirti Varman of Chandelas were all strong in their own regions.
• Khajuraho temple, Lakshmana temple, Vishwanatha temple and Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand who ruled from Khajuraho.
• Difference between the weapons used by the Turks and the Rajputs.

Foundation of Delhi Sultanate

Slave Dynasty [Mamluk dynasty] - (1206-1290)

• Death of Ghori, Qutb-ud-din Aibak ascended the throne.
• Three important rulers
• Qutb-ud-din Aibak → Iltutmish → Balban → Kaiqubad’s indulgence [(Grandson of Balban) {Balban son Bughra Khan, took indeendance Bengal, not claim Delhi}, son of Bughra Khan became successor]

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)

• Enslaved as a boy and sold to Sultan Muhammad Ghori.
• Sultan elevated him to the rank of Viceroy.
• Muhammad Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji, Turkish general from Afghanistan assisted him in conquering Bihar and Bengal.
• Died in 1210 in Lahore, accident while playing chaugan.
• Bhakthiyar Khalji destroying glorious Buddhist University of Nalanda in Bihar.

Iltutmish (1210–1236)

• Slave brought to Delhi by merchants from trade center like Bukhara, Samarqand and Baghdad.
• Iltutmish’s reliance on his elite military slaves (Bandagan) and his practice of appointing them for the posts of governors and generals.
• Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, the slave and son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
• In his reign put down the internal rebellions, saved India by refusing to support the Khwarizmi Shah Jalaluddin of Central Asia against the Mongol ruler Chengiz Khan.
• Completion of Qutb Minar, a colossal victory tower of 243 feet at Delhi.
• Introduce basic coin of Sultanate Period - copper and silver tanka
• Throne was not smooth after Iltutmish’s death.
• Raziya Sultana (1236-1240), daughter of Iltutmish.
• Finally, by his youngest son Sultan Nasir al-Din Mahmud II (1246–66)
• Iltutmish’s royal slaves (bandagan-i-khas) were replaced by junior bandagan,
• slave governors of province first t break free from Delhi.
• 1254, Uligh Khan, a junior, newly purchased slave in Iltutmish’s reign, now the commander of the Shivalikh territories, title of na’ib-i mulk, Deputy of the Realm

 Balban (1265-1287)

• Constant military campaigns against defiant governors.
• Newly deforested lands given to freshly recruited Afghans and others as rent-free lands (mafruzi) and rought under cultivation. New forts were constructed to protect trade routes and village markets.
• Balban and the Problem of Law and Order
• Rajput zamindars, set up fort & defied the orders.
• Meos, a Muslim Community, live region around Mewat were plundering.
• Balban took to destroy the Mewatis.
• Colonies of Afghan soldiers were established to safeguard roads & deals with rebellions.
• Punitive Expedition against Tughril Khan
• Tughril Khan, as the Governor of Bengal. But Tughril Khan soon became rebellious. Amin Khan, the governor of Oudh, sent by Balban to suppress the rebellion
• Balban himself Proceeded to Bengal, Capture & beheaded. Bughra Khan, a son of Balban, Governor of Bengal, who carved out an independent kingdom after the death of Balban (Not claim Delhi).
• His son Kaiqubad’s indulgence in debauchery.
• Ghurid bandagan in North India were the slaves of Muiz-ud- Din Ghuri
• Measures against Mongol Threats
• Efforts to maintain a good relationship with Hulagu Khan, the Mongol Viceroy of Iran and a grandson of Chengiz Khan.
• Halagu Khan goodwill mission to Delhi in 1259.
• Mongol Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribes of Central Asia, established a very large kingdom leadership of Chengiz Khan

Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296)

• Balban’ son Kaiqubad, unfit to rule, his three-year-old son Kaymars was placed on the throne.
• Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the commander of the army, emerged supreme. He ruled the kingdom in name of Kaiqubad.
• his officers to get Kaiqubad, he murdered and Jalal-ud-din formally ascended the throne. Jalal-ud-din won many battles.
• Ala-ud-din, a nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khalji, who was appointed governor of Kara, invaded Malwa. Campaign to raid Devagiri.
• Return he arranged to get Jalaluddin Khalji murdered and captured the throne.

Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316)

• Ala-ud-din & Nobles
• The first year of his rule in eliminating the enemies and strengthening his position in Delhi
• Establishing a firm hold over the Nobles. Dismissed several of his top office, particularly severe with the nobles who had shifted loyalty and opportunistically joined him against Jalal-ud-din.
• Mongol Threats
• Mangol ride in 2^nd Year, Ala-ud-din Succeeded in driving them back.
• Raids continued until 1305. major Mongol incursion took place in 1307-08.
• Military Campaigns
• Ala-ud-din’s campaigns into Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314), Gujarat (1299–1300), Ranthambhor (1301), Chittor (1303) and Malwa (1305).
• Commanded by Malik Kafur in 1307 to capture Devagiri fort.
• Prataparudradeva, the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal in the Telengana region, was defeated in 1309.
• In 1310 the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III surrendered all his treasures to the Delhi forces.
• Muslims in Tamil provinces fought on the side of the Pandyas against Malik Kafur.
• After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandya kingdom suffered an eclipse and a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came to be established in Madurai.
• In 1335 the Muslim Governor of Madurai Jalal-ud-din Asan Shah threw off his allegiance to Delhi kingdom and declared his independence.
• Ala-ud-din’s Internal Reforms
• Deprive the nobles of the wealth.
• Marriage alliances between families of noble men were permitted only with the consent of the Sultan.
• proprietary right to villagers, as free gift or religious endowment be brought back under the royal authority and control.
• curbed the powers of the traditional village officers, Corruption official were dealth with sternly.
• Prohibited liquor and banned the use of intoxicating drugs. Gambling was forbidden and gamblers were driven out of the city.
• Land taxes collect direct from cultivators & set up the postal system.
• Sultan’s Market Reforms
• Pay his soldiers in cash rather than give them a share of booty.
• Set up an elaborate intelligence network to collect information on black-marketing and hoarding.
• Market superintendents, reporters and spies had to send daily reports on the prices of essential commodities.
• Deficiency in weight was found, an equal weight of flesh was cut from the seller’s body.
• Ala-ud-din’s Successors
• His eldest son Khizr Khan, as his successor.
• Ala-ud-din’s confidant at that time was Malik Kafur. Malik Kafur himself assumed the authority of the government. But Kafur’s was assassinated by hostile nobles.
• Ghazi Malik of several campaigns against the Mongols, ascending the throne of Delhi in 1320 as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.
• Began the rule of the Tughlaq Dynasty which lasted until 1414.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-1324)

• Followed a policy of reconciliation with the nobles, but died in 1325.
• Three days later Jauna ascended throne, title Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1324-1351)

• Learned, cultured and talented prince but gained a reputation of being merciless, cruel and unjust.
• Repulsed the Mangol, Marched up to Meerut near Delhi.
• Transfer of Capital
• Delhi to Devagiri, because difficult to rule south India from Delhi.
• Soon realise difficult to rule north India, So ordered transfer of capital back to Delhi.
• Token Currency
• coins were based on silver content. Issue bronze coins, fake coins were minted. Later bronze coins and replace them with silver.
• Sultan’s Other Innovative Measures
• Scheme to expand cultivation. Separate department (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi) to take care of agriculture.
• Loans were advanced to farmers for purchase of cattle, seeds and digging of wells but to no avail.
• Office appointed to monitor the crops were not efficient.
• Faced a series of rebellions, his repressive measures further alienated his subjects. Frantically engaged in pursuing a rebel leader in Gujarat, he fell ill, and died at the end of his 26^th regnal year (1351).

Firuz Tughlaq (1351–1388)

• Younger brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.
• Ghiyas-ud-din ascended the throne, he gave Firuz command of a 12,000 strong cavalry force. Later Firuz was made in charge of one of the four divisions of the Sultanate. Muhammad bin Tughlaq died without naming his successor.
• Muhammad’s sister to his son was not supported by the nobles. His son recommended by Muhammad’s friend Khan-i-Jahan Under such circumstances, Firuz ascended the throne.
• Khan-i- Jahan, was a Brahmin convert to Islam. Originally known as Kannu.
• Conciliatory Policy towards Nobles
• He reintroduced the system of hereditary appointments to offices.
• Increase salaries, Reduce service tax.
• Abolish varieties of torture employed by his predecessor.
• The slave department took care of the wellbeing of 180,000 slaves. They were trained in handicrafts and employed in the royal workshops.
• Firuz Policy of No Wars
• Only 2 Mangol incursions, both were successfully repulsed.
• A major military campaign of his period was against Sind (1362). ruler of Sind agreed to surrender and pay tribute to the Sultan.
• Religious Policy
• Orthodox Islam. He imposed jizya, a head tax on non-Muslims,
• the Brahmins were compelled to pay.
• Yet Firuz did not prohibit the building of new Hindu temples and shrines.
• Many Sanskrit works relating to religion, medicine and music.
• Jizya was abolished by the Mughal ruler Akbar in 16th century but was re-introduced by Aurangzeb in the 17th century.
• Public Work
• Canal & Irrigation Projects.
• Firuz died in 1388, after making his son Fath Khan and grandson Ghiyas-ud-din as joint rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
• Heredity permitted for nobles, applied to army weakened the sultanate.
• Nobility involved in political intrigues.
• Within six years of Firuz Tughlaq’s death four rulers succeeded him.

Timur’s Invasion

• Last Tughlaq ruler was Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah (1394–1412).
• Turkish timur blood relation with Chengiz Khan.
• Arrival of Timur, sulthan Nasir-ud-din feld Delhi, also took Indian artisans engaged for raising buildings in his capital Samarkhand.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

• Timur appointed Khizr Khan as his deputy to oversee Timurid interests in the Punjab marches.
• Khizr Khan (1414-21) went on to seize Delhi and establish the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51).
• Their rule is marked for the composing of Tarikh-i- Mubarak Shahi by Yahiya bin Ahmad Sirhindi.
• History of the Delhi Sultanate there was only one Sultan who voluntarily abdicated his throne and moved to a small town away from Delhi, where he lived for three full decades in contentment and peace. He was Alam Shah of the Sayyid dynasty. – Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath.

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

• The Lodi Dynasty was established by Bahlol Lodi (1451–1489) whose reign witnessed the conquest of Sharqi Kingdom (Bengal). It was his son Sikander Lodi (1489–1517) who shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra in 1504.
• The last Lodi ruler Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat, which resulted in the establishment of Mughal Dynasty.