Other Literature
Classical Sanskrit Literature
- Most of the work has been divided into- Vedic and Classical categories
- The two epics: Mahabharata & Ramayana are part of the Classical category
- Irrespective of their centrality to the Hindu religion, these epics can also be considered to be the precursors of Sanskrit kavya (poetry), nataka (drama), etc.
- Most of the Sanskrit literature was bound by the rules of grammar that have been explained brilliantly in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi
- Includes romantic tales whose sole purpose was to entertain the public
- Usually written in the form of stories
- The rules regarding the performance, direction, acting etc. have been illustrated in the Natyashastra by Bharata
Kalidasa | Malvikagnimitra- love story of the Queens’ maiden, Malvika & Pushyamitra’s son, Agnimitra |
Vikramorvasiya- love story of Vikram & Urvasi | |
Abhigyana Sakuntalam- Recognition of Sakuntala | |
Sudraka | Mricchakatika- love affair of young Brahmin Charudatta with a wealthy courtesan |
Visakhadutta | Mudrarakshasa- political drama, narrates the ascent of king Chandragupta Maurya to power |
Devi Chandraguptam | |
Bhavabhuti | Uttara Ramacharitam- later life of Rama |
Bhasa | Swapnavasavadatta, Panchatantra, Urubhanga |
Harshavardhana (wrote 3 Sanskrit plays) | Ratnavali- love story of Ratnavali & King Udayana Nagananda- in this drama, there is an invocation to Lord Buddha in the Nandi verse Priyadarsika- union of Udayana & Priyadarsika, daughter of King Dridhavarman |
- Also called kavya, here the main focus of the text is form, style, figure of speech
- Kalidasa wrote Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa, Meghaduta, Ritusamhara
- Harisena wrote during the Gupta period
- He wrote several poems in praise of valor of Samudragupta and it was so well appreciated that it was inscribed on the Allahabad pillar
- Jayadeva wrote Gita Govinda- concentrates on the life and escapades of Lord Krishna
- Other major poets:
- Bharavi- Kirartajuniya (kirat, the hunter & arjun)
- Magha- Sishupalavadha (killing of Sishupal)
- Dharmasutras- books on law compiled alongside smritis known as Dharmashastras
- These are the basis of laws governing the subjects of most Hindu kingdoms
- Manusmriti- defines the role of man and woman in a society, their interaction and code of conduct
- Kautilya’s Arthashastra- concentrates on the economic and social conditions, including the military strength, of the Mauryan empire
- While Sanskrit was the preferred language of the courts, it got an impetus in the Gupta period
- Some scientific texts of the ancient period include:
Pingala | Chandasastra- Book on Mathematics |
Charak | Charak Samhita- Book on Medicine |
Sushruta | Sushruta Samhita- Book on Surgery |
Madhava | Madhava Nidana- Book on pathology |
Varahamihira | Pancha-Siddhantika- Book on Mathematical Astronomy |
| Brihat Samhita- included a wide range of subjects |
Aryabhata | Aryabhatiya- Book on Astronomy & Mathematics |
Lagadha | Vedanga Jyotisha |
- Two most notable Sanskrit works in medieval times, from Kashmir-
- Kalhan’s Rajatarangini (detailed account of King of Kashmir)
- Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar (poetic work)
- Prakrit is a term which is loosely attached to any language from the standard one (Sanskrit)
- The Buddhist literature can be broadly classified into canonical & non-canonical ones. Canonical work consists of the Tripitakas:
- Vinay Pitaka: rules and regulations to be followed by the Buddhist monks
- Sutta Pitaka: dialogues and speeches of Buddhha related to morality and dharma
- Abhidhamma Pitaka: concentrates on philosophy and metaphysics
- Best example of non-canonical work: Jatakas. These are compilation of stories from the previous births of Buddha; includes stories of Bodhisattvas (available in both Sanskrit & Pali)
- The great epic Buddhacharita by Asvaghosha is another example of buddhist literature in Sanskrit
- Jainism produced texts in Prakrit, most important- Agamas
- Some Jain texts written in Sanskrit- Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi
- Shantinatha Charita is an important Jain text of the 16th Tirthankara, Shantinatha, written in Sanskrit
- Prakrit texts have some elements of erotica through texts like the Gatha Saptasathi by Hala. A large number of female poets have contributed- Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha, etc.
- Other Buddhist literary texts:
Dipavamsa | Composed in sri Lanka, mentions about Buddha’s visit to Sri Lanka and arrival of tooth relic of Buddha |
Milinda Panho | Dialogue between King Menander & Buddhist monk, Nagasena |
Mahavamsa | Epic poem similar to Dipavamsa, in Pali; contains account of Buddha’s visit to Sri Lanka |
Mahavastu | Contains Jataka & Avadana tales; written in Sanskrit, Pali & Prakrit |
Lalitavistara Sutra | Important Mahayana text; contains various stories about Buddha till his first sermon at Sarnath |
Udana | Oldest Thervada text; contains the famous story of Blind Men and the Elephant |
Bodhi Vamsa | Prose poem, written in Sanskritised Pali, by Upatissa |
Mahavibhasa Shastra | Contains discussion about other non-Buddhist philosophies; essentially a Mahayana text |
Visuddhimagga | Written by Buddhaghosha, a text of the Thervada doctrine; contains discussion on the teachings of Buddha |
- Apart from writing in Prakrit & Ardha Magadhi,
- The Jains wrote in Tamil during the Sangam Age
- Also wrote in Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati & Marathi
- Two major categories:
- Canonical or religious texts, called Jain Agamas or Agams
- Non-canonical literary works
- Jain Agamas:
- Sacred texts said to be the teachings of Tirthankaras
- Originally compiled by Ganadharas, Chief Disciples of Mahavira
- Re-compiled by the Monks of Svetambara sect, after a council held in Vallabhi (Gujarat)
- The Digambaras reject the originality of the recompilation
- Agamas comprise of 46 texts- 12 angas, 12 upangas, 10 prakirnakasutras, 4 mulasutras, 6 chedasutras, 2 culikasutras
- Written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit language
- Digambaras gave sacred status to two works: Karmaprabhrita and Kashayaprabhrita.
- Other important works:
Bhadrabahu | Teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote Uvasaggaharam Stotra, Kalpa Sutra; a pioneer of the Digambara sect |
Acharya Kundkund | Samayasara and Niyamasara |
Samanta Bhadra | Ratna Karanda Sravakachara and Aptamimansa |
Ilango Adigal | Silappadikaram, a moralistic discourse |
Tirutakkatevar | Civaka Cintamani |
Umaswati | Tattvartha-sutra, in Sanskrit, accepted by both Svetambaras and Digambaras |
Jinasena | Revered Digambara monk, wrote Mahapurana & Adipurana |
Haribhadra Suri | Svetambara Jain author, who wrote in Sanskrit |
Hemachandra Suri | Wrote grammars of Sanskrit and Prakrit; awarded the title of Kalikalasarvajna. Nalatiyar, ancient Tamil text composed by Jain monks |
- Important learning centres- Universities of Vallabhi & Kalinga
- It refers to the religion developed from the teachings of the Persian prophet Zoroaster
- It was the first religion to believe in angels, the day of judgement, demonic figures, and a battle between good and evil
- Most important text- Avesta; written in the (now extinct) Avestan language, similar to Sanskrit
- In the book, Yasna is the most important ceremony of faith
- Other important texts:
- Denkard: Encyclopedia of Zoroastrians
- Bundahishn: details about the theory of creation in the religion
- The beliefs and philosophies are written in the sacred scripture, Guru Granth Sahib
- Gurbani is the composition of hymns of Sikh Gurus and the Guru Granth Sahib
- Other important works:
- Adi Granth: compiled by Bhai Gurdas under the aegis of the 5th Guru Arjan Dev
- Guru Granth Sahib: further expansion of Adi Granth under Guru Gobind Singh.
- Written in Gurmukhi script in a language called Sant Bhasha. It contains the
- teachings of bhakti saints, Bhagats
- Dasam Granth: hymns written by Guru Gobind Singh; some of which are offered in the daily prayers called Nitnem
- Janamsakhis: contain mythological and exaggerated stories of the first Guru Nanak
- Ardas: set of prayer performed as a daily ritual in the gurdwara
- Sangam means fraternity and this literature was very popular among the masses
- Two major schools:
- Aham/Agam: inner field, discusses abstract human aspects (love, sexual relations)
- Puram: outer field, discusses human experiences (social life, ethics)
- Name derived from the Assemblies, known as Sangamas; organized by the Pandyas, where poets, bards & writers joined from all across South India
Sangam | Kingdom | Place organised | Chairman | Books |
First or head | Pandya | Madurai | Agastya or Shiva | No book has survived. Used Agattiyam as grammar |
Second or Middle Sangam | Pandya | Kapatapuram | Initially, Agastya Later, Tolkappiyar | Tolkappiyamtextbook on Tamil grammar |
Third | Pandya | Madurai | Nakkirar | Most of the existing corpus of Sangam Literature |
- Around 30,000 lines of poetry have been arranged in 8 anthologies, known as Ettuthogai
- Saint Thiruvalluvar has contributed the Tirukkural to the Sangam literature
- Another famous female saint- Avvaiyar
- Two major texts: Silappadikarm by Ilango-Adigal, and Manimekalai by Satthanar.
- These texts focus on the Tamil society and the economic and political changes it was experiencing
- Final turn came in with the Vaishnava Bhakti movements
- 12 Alvars or saint poets who were immersed in devotion to Vishnu, wrote several texts. One female Alvar saint was named Andal
- Another group was called Nayanars, who sang the praise of Shiva
- In secular writings, there were two major poets called Periya Puranam and Kambaramayanam
- Usually spoken in Kerala and surrounding areas
- Two major works: Kokasandisan and Bhasa Kautilya (commentary on Arthashastra)
- Ramacharitam: an epic poem written by Cheeraman
- Ezhuthachan: a strong proponent of the Bhakti movement; also known as the Father of Malayalam Language
- Linguists argue that Nannayya was the first Telugu poet
- Reached its zenith during the Vijayanagara period, also known as the Golden Age of Telugu literature
- Uttaraharivamsan: composed by Nachana Somanatha; court poet of King Bukka I
- Amuktamalyada: poetry composed by King Krishnadevaraya.
- During his reign, 8 learned poets were attached to his court, known as Ashtadiggajas
- He patronised Kannada poets, the Tamil poet Haridasa; and himself, wrote treatises in Sanskrit and Kannada, too
- Out of these, the following deserve a special mention
Poets | Work |
Allasani Peddana | Manu Charitra |
Nandi Thimmana | Parijatapaharanamu |
Tenali Ramakrishna | Panduranga Mahatmayam |
Ramaraja Bhushanudu |
|
Madayyagari Mallana | Rajasekaracharitra |
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu | Ramabhudayamu |
- Jain scholars made the first foray
- Best example is DHarmanathapurana, by Madhava on the life of the 15th Tirthankara
- One of the first recorded texts in Kannada is Kavirajamarga, by Amoghavarsha I, a very powerful Rashtrakuta king
- Three unparalleled gems:
- Pampa: Father of Kannada, wrote Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya. He mastered the rasa, wrote poetry
- Ponna: Shanti Purana
- Ranna: Ajitha Purana
- Grammar of the language was written in Shabdamanidarpana by Keshiraja
- Religious texts: Narahari composed Torave Ramayana; Jaimini Bharata by Lakshmisha
- Sarvajna was given the title of People’s Poet; he composed the tripadi (three-lined poems)
- The first poetess in Kannada called Honnamma wrote the Hadibadeya Dharma (duty of a devout wife)
Comments
Post a Comment