Gupta Age

 Rise of Gupta

• Chandragupta I, who was the third ruler of the Gupta dynasty married Kumaradevi, a Lichchavi prince.
• Lichchavi was an old, establish gana-sangha and its territory lay between the Ganges and the Nepal Terai.
• Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta I, Conquered whole fertile plain west of Prayag to Mathura. spectacular raid through Kalinga into the south as far as Kanchipuram.
• Puranas mention Magadha, Allahabad and Oudh as the Gupta dominion.

Gupta Period

• Strong Central Government.
• Effective guild system and overseas trade, the Gupta economy boomed.
• Feudal System of Government.
• Works in Sanskrit, Fine Arts, Sculpture and architecture was achieved in high level.

Empire Building

Chandragupata I (319 to 335 CE)

• Sri Gupta (240–280 CE) → his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE) → his son Chandragupta I (319 to 335 CE) - first great king of the Gupta Empire.
• Sri Gupta & Ghatotkacha mentioned as Maharajas, Chandragupta title of maharaja-adhiraja.
• No inscriptions or coins have survived from his reign.

Samudragupta (335 – 375 CE)

• Samudragupta to succeed him in 335 CE.
• Samudragupta campaigned down the eastern coast. Nine kings of the western half of the Ganges Plain were violently uprooted. Forest kings were forced to pay tribute.
• Small kingdom of Nepal and rajasthan, Foreign kings (Daivaputra, Shahanushahi, the Sakas, the king of lanka) pay tribute to Gupta.
• Northern kingdom was annexed to the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta.
• Samudragupta’s campaign broke the power of the tribal republics in those regions that led to repeated invasions from the Huns.
• The relationship with Kushanas is not certain, but with regard to Lanka, its ruler Meghavarman sent presents and requested permission from Samudragupta to build a Buddhist monastery at Gaya.
• Samudragupta patronised scholars and poet like Harisena, Vasubandhu (Buddhist scholar) & Promoted Sanskrit literature.
• lover of poetry and music, he was given the title “Kaviraja”. His coins bear the insignia of him playing the vina (lute).

Chandragupta II (375 to 415 CE)

• Other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya and Sakari
• Power after a succession struggle with his brother Rama Gupta. He is also known as Vikramaditya.
• He married off his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, who ruled the strategic lands of Deccan. This alliance was highly useful when he proceeded against the Saka rulers of western India.
• Conquered western malwa & Gujarat by defeating the saka rulers.
• Trade links with Roman Empire.
• Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers like the Huns, Kambojas and Kiratas.
• Court had nine jewels or navaratnas, nine eminent people in various fields of art, literature and science. This included the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, Sanskrit scholar Harisena, lexicographer Amarasimha, and the physician Dhanvantari.
• First Gupta ruler to issue silver coins – say by Fahien, Buddhist scholar form china.
• Chandragupta II → his son Kumara Gupta I (Sakraditya), who founded the Nalanda University →his son Skanda Gupta.
• Huns invasion, Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skanda Gupta in 467 CE.
• Last recognized king Vishnu Gupta (540 to 550 CE)

Gupta’s Administrative System

The King

• Titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara
• Connected with gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).

Ministers and other Officials

• Term “kumaramatya” occurs in six Vaishali seals, High ranking officer with Office (adikarana).
• “amatya” occurs on several Bita seals.
• Individuals holding the ranks of kumaramatya sometimes has additional designations as well such rank were hereditary.

Council of Ministers

• Council of mantrins (ministers). Council known as Sabha.
• Sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika – Minister of Peace and war.
• Dandanayakas – High ranking officer.
• Mahadandanayakas (Agnigupta) were high-ranking judicial or military office.
• mahashvapati - commander of the cavalry.

Division of the Empire

• Divided into Provinces – deshas or bhuktis.
• Administered by governors designated as uarikas (title maharaja). Appointed by King.
• Uparika carried on the administration “with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants, horses and soldiers”.
• Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta, dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to maharaja.
• Surashmichandra as a lokpala (Provincial governor).
• Empire divided inti districts – Visayas & Officers – Vishyapatis.

Administrative Units below the District level

• Administrative units below the district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta.
• Officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras.
• Village level, villagers chose functionaries such as gramika and gramadhyaksha.
• ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members) headed by the mahattara (Village headman).
• Sanchi inscription mentions panchmandali (corporate body).

Army

• Baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry).
• The standard term “senapati” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
• Ranabhandagar-adhikarana, (office of the military storehouse)
• Another Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the Dandapashika, district-level police office.
• The officials connected specifically with the royal establishment included the mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards).
• khadyatapakita (superintendent of the royal kitchen).
• Top layer of the administrative structure, amatyas and sachivas - Executive office
• Ayuktakas – High rank Officer.

Economic Condition

• Nitisara, written by Kamandaka, is a text like Arthasastra.
• Akshapataladhikrita was the keeper of royal records.

Agriculture and Agrarian Structure

• Establishment of irrigation & Waste land under cultivation.
• Varahamihira gives elaborate advice on the plantation of fruit trees.
• The Paharpur copper plate inscription indicates that the king was the sole proprietor of the land.
• Stated in Paharpur plates, an officer called ustapala maintained records of all the land transactions.
• Land Classification
• Kshetra - Cultivatable land.
• Khila - Waste land.
• Aprahata - Jungle or waste land.
• Vasti - Habitable land.
• Gapata Saraha - Pastoral land.

Different Land Tenures
Types of Tenures	Nature of Holding
Nivi dharma	Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North and Central India and Bengal.
Nivi dharma aksayana	A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived from it.
Aprada dharma	Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either
Bhumi chchidranyaya	Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability
Other Land Grants
Agrahara grants		Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free
Devagrahara grants		A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for the repair and worship of temples.
Secular grants		Grants made to feudatories of Guptas

Irrigation

• Bardhya, which protected the field from floods.
• Khara, purpose for irrigation.
• jalanirgamah (drains), To prevent inundation.
• Canals & Tanks constructed.
• Discovery of iron, for deep ploughing and for increasing cultivation.

Position of Peasantry

• Reduced to the position of serfs due to the caste classification.
• The practice of lease-holding reduced the permanent tenants.
• They pay various taxes.

Tax	Nature
Bhaga	King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of the produce paid by cultivators.
Bhoga	Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to provide to the king.
Kara	A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the annual land tax)
Bali	A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. It was an oppressive tax
Udianga	Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax.
Uparikara	Also an extra tax. Scholars give different explanations about what it was collected for.
Hiranya	Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably the king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.
Vata-Bhuta	Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds (vata) and the spirits (bhuta)
Halivakara	A plough tax paid by every cultivator owning a plough
Sulka	A royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants. Hence it can be equated with the customs and tolls.
Klipta and Upakilpta	Related to sale and purchase of lands.

Industry: Mining and Metallurgy

• Mined iron ore from Bihar and copper from Rajasthan.
• Development of Metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of King Chandra in the Qutb Minar Complex in Delhi.
• Coin casting, metal engraving, pottery making, terracotta work and wood carving were other specialised crafts.
• seals and statutes of Buddha and other gods in Metal.

Trade and Commerce

• Two types of trade
• Sresti - usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position.
• The Sarthavaha - a caravan trader who carried his goods to different places for profitable sale
• Guild is a society or other organisation of people with common interests or an association of merchants.
• The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds. Guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.
• Philanthropic activities of guilds - providing shelter for travellers and building assembly houses, temples and gardens.
• Joint Corporate bodies - merchant-bankers, caravan merchants & artisans.
• Usury – Lending of money at an exorbitant rate of interest.
• Tamralipti in Bengal as an important centre of trade on the eastern coast. Connect Persia, Arabia and Byzantium on the one hand and Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia on the other.

The Guptas issued many gold coins but comparatively few silver and copper coins. However, the post-Gupta period saw a decline in the circulation of gold coins.

Cultural Florescence

Art and Architecture

• Nagara, Dravida style.
• Gupta art ushers in a formative and creative age.

Rock-cut

• Changes in the ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of the pillars in the interior.
• Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra), Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) & Udayagiri caves (Orissa)

Structural Temples

• First Group
• Flat-roofed square temples.
• Flat-roofed square temple with a vimana (second storey).
• Square temple with a curvilinear tower (shikara) above.
• Rectangular temple.
• Circular temple.
• Second Group - Dravida style.
• Third Group -  the innovation of a shikhara that caps the sanctum sanctorum, the main feature of the Nagara style.

Stupas

• Samat (Uttar Pradesh), Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur Khas (Sind).

Sculpture: Stone Sculpture

• Erect Buddha from Sarnath, impressive is the great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.

Metal statues

• A copper image of the Buddha about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar.
• The Sultanganj Buddha of seven-and-a-half feet in height.

Paintings

• Mural paintings at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places.
• The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School of painting at its best.

Tereacotta and Pottery

• Vishnu, Karttikeya, Durga, Naga and other gods and goddesses.
• Red ware pottery - Ahchichhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar.

Sanskrit Literature

• Official language, epigraphic records were written in it.
• The period saw the last phase of the Smriti literature.
• Smritis are religious texts covering ethics, politics, culture and art. Dharmasastras and puranas form the core of this body of literature.

Sanskrit Grammar

• Development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini who wrote Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali who wrote Mahabhashya on the topic.
• This period is compilation of the Amarakosa, a thesaurus in Sanskrit, by Amarasimha.
• A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandrogomia, composed a book on grammar named Chandravyakaranam.

Puranas and Ithihasas

• Originally composed by bards (professional storytellers), but now, having come into priestly hands, they were rewritten in classical Sanskrit.
• Mahabharata and the Ramayana also got their final touches.
• Eighteen major puranas are listed. Well known are
1. Brahma Purana,
2. Padma Purana,
3. Vishnu Purana,
4. Skanda Purana,  
5. Shiva Maha Purana,
6. Markendeya Purana,
7. Agni Purana,
8. Bhavishya Purana,
9. Matsya Purana
10. Shrimad Bhagavat Purana.

Buddhist Literature

• Earliest work in Pali, later phase, Sanskrit came.
• Arya Deva & Arya Asanga – Most notable writing.
• First regular Buddhist work on logic was written by Vasubandhu.

Jain Literature

• Shape in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit came to be the medium later.
• The Hindu itihasa and puranas were recast in Jaina versions to popularise their doctrines.
• Vimala produced a Jaina version of Ramayana.
• Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.

Secular Literature

• Celebrating navarathnas.
• Kalidasa’s famous dramas are Sakunthalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramaurvashiyam.
• Elite spoke in Sanskrit; the common people spoke Prakrit.

Prakrit Language and Literature

• Prakrit, patronage outside the court circle.
• Evolution of many Prakrit forms such as Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardh Magadhi spoken in Awadh and Bundelkhand and Magadhi in modern Bihar.

Nalanda University

• UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha in India.
• Centre of learning from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE.
• Patronised by
• Gupta Empire – 5^th & 6^th century.
• Harsha, emperor of Kanauj – Till 9^th century.
• Palas of Bengal.
• Nalanda contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia.
• Ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in c.1200 CE.

Gupta Sciences
Mathematics and Astronomy

• Theory of Zero & Decimal system.
• Surya Siddanta Aryabhatta (Late 5^th & Early 6^th Century CE).
• Calculate size of the earth.
• First astronomer to discover that the earth rotates on its own axis.
• Book, Aryabhattiyam, which deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
• Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita (6^th Century).
• Encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history.
• Other works Panch Siddhantika.
• Brihat Jataka Brahmagupta (Late 6^th & Early 7^th Century CE).
• Author of Brahmasphuta-siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka.

Medical Science

• Use of mercury and iron by Varahamihira and others indicate that much progress was made in chemistry.
• The Navanitakam was a medical work.
• Hastyayurveda or the veterinary science authored by Palakapya.

Decline of Gupta Empire

• Last king Vishnugupta 540 to 550 CE.
• Internal fighting and dissensions among royal family.
• During Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Narendrasena of western Deccan, attacked Malwa, Mekala and Kosala.
• Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the Guptas.
• During Skanda Gupta’s reign, the grandson of Chandragupta II, the Huns invaded northwest India. He was successful in repulsing the Huns but drain of financial resources.
• In 6^th Cuntury, the Huns occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara. As the Hun invasion weakened the Gupta.
• Independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of Uttar Pradesh, the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and others in Bengal. In time, the Gupta Empire came to be restricted to only Magadha.
• By the beginning of the 6^th century, the empire had disintegrated and was ruled by many regional chieftains