Ancient Literature

 

• Literature means any form of writing that has some literary merit
• Classifications:
• Fiction & non-fiction
• Poetry & prose
• Difference between didactic and narrative texts

Points of difference	Didactic	Narrative
Type of text	Directive texts- try to influence reasoning, thinking & conduct of reader	Gives all essential information to the reader
objectives	Writer intends to persuade or compel	Writer means to enhance and sustain the interest of the reader
Commonly used for	Political and moral issues are written about	Used in story writing and novels

• In India, four speeches are followed: Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan, Indo-European
• The Indo-European language includes Sanskrit too

Hindu literature in ancient India

• There is a lot of literature in Prakrit, which is full of realism and moral values without religious connotations attached to it
• Most popular work- Vedas; sacred texts used in religious rituals as well as daily situations

Vedas

• The word signifies knowledge
• Written in highly stylized poetic form; full of symbols & myths
• Initially, they were handed down orally, compiled around 1500-1000 BC
• The vedas preach Vasudaiva Kutumbakam
• Four major vedas: Rig veda, Yajur veda, Atharva veda, Sama veda
• All vedas give prominence to yajna (sacrifice)
• The Brahamanas, Aranyaks, Upanishads accompany each veda

Rig veda

• Oldest existing veda
• Focus is on worldly prosperity and natural beauty
• Organized in 10 books, called Mandalas
• Each mandala comprises of various suktas or hymns, meant for sacrifices
• Themes: life, death, creation, sacrifice
• Dedicated to several deities, chiefly Lord Indra

Yajur veda

• Yajus signifies sacrifice
• Concentrates on rites & mantras of different types of sacrifices prevalent then
• Two major recensions/ Samhitas:
• Shukla- white/pure; also called Vajasaneyi samhita
• Krishna- black/dark; also called Taittriya samhita
• Predominantly a ritual veda; acts like a guide book to rishis/ munis who conduct sacrificial rituals

Sama veda

• Named after Saman/ melody
• Concentrates on melody or songs
• Consists of hymns, detached verses, ragas & raginis
• Also known as the book of chants
• Shows us how Indian music developed in the Vedic period

Atharva veda

• Also known as Brahma veda
• Attributed to two rishis: Atharvan, Angiras; therefore, known as, Atharvangirasa
• Concerned with peace & prosperity of the human society
• Specifically focuses on treatment of several ailments
• Two major Sakhas:
• Pippalada
• Saunakiya
• Most of the text deals with black and white magic, speculation on the changes in the universe
• Vedangas: branches/ limbs of the vedas. They are a supplement to the original vedas. One of the most striking examples is Panini’s Ashtadhyayi which is a text to define the rules of Sanskrit grammar.

Brahamanas

• Part of the Hindu sruti literature
• Each veda has a Brahamana attached to it, a collection of commentaries on the particular veda
• Contain instructions on how to properly conduct rituals and enunciate the science of sacrifice
• Also explain the symbolic significance of the sacred words used in the rituals
• Each veda has an accompanying Brahamana.

Rig veda	Aitareya Brahamana	Kaushitaki Brahamana
Yajur veda	Tandya Brahamana	Sadvimsha Brahamana
Sama veda	Taittriya Brahamana	Shatapatha Brahamana
Atharva veda	Gopatha Brahamana

Aranyakas

• Describe the philosophy behind the rituals and sacrifices involved
• Said to be compilations of ritualistic information on the cycle of rebirth and complexity of soul.
• Munis, who preferred to dwell in the forests taught them

Upanishads

• It means- to sit down near
• The oral handing over of the knowledge was a part of the guru-shishya parampara
• These treaties are written in Sanskrit
• Generally the last part of the veda- also known as Vedanta
• Said to contain the truth of life and show the way towards moksha/ salvation
• Out of 200 upanishads, 108 have been called the Muktika canon
• Upanishads vs Aranyakas.

Upanishads	Aranyakas
Jnana-kanda	Karma-kanda
Knowledge/ spirituality section	Ritualistic actions/ sacrifice section

The Mahabharata & Ramayana

• These two great epics are also known as Mahakavya. Added and compiled through the ages, today it is an amalgamation of several transmissions.

Ramayana

• The most revered recension is by sage Valmiki, also called Adikavi
• Therefore, Ramayana is also called Adikavya
• In the story, Rama is projected as an ideal man, and through him, Purushartha or mankind is given:

Dharma	Religion or righteousness
Artha	Monetary achievements in the worldly sphere
Kama	Fulfilling worldly desires
Moksha	Liberation from these desires

• Divided into seven books, called Khandas
• The success of Rama over Ravana over the latter kidnapping his wife, Sita; is considered to be the victory of good over evil

Mahabharata

• Most popular version, by Ved Vyas
• The first version in Sanskrit was called Jaya/ victory
• When number of verses increased, it was renamed Bharata, after the earliest vedic tribes
• Current form has furthermore verses and is divided into 10 parvas/ chapters
• Story: conflict between Kauravas & Pandavas over the right to claim Hastinapur
• It also consists of an important didactical text- Bhagvad Gita
• Most of the text is a dialogue between Lord Krishna and Pandava Prince Arjuna about the duties of a man, warrior & prince
• It also talks of violence and non-violence, action versus non-action
• Talks about dharma and nishkama karma- perform one’s duty to the family and the world in a selfless manner

The Puranas

• These texts talk about that which renews the old
• Ancient Indian mythological texts, which consists of the narrative stories about the creation of the universe, and illustrates its history till destruction
• Focuses on the divine hindu trimurti: Brahma, Vishnum& Mahesh
• There are 18 major Mahapuranas, each one giving prominence to a particular deity
• Some well-known Puranas include: Bhagvata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni, Garuda, Padma, Vishnu, Matsya
• Written in the form of stories, which combine myths, legends and sermons about the deities
• For the masses who did not understand the complex Veds, Puranas were translated and distributed in vernacular languages
• Puranas use parables & fables:

Parables	Short stories illustrating a spiritual/ moral lesson, usually containing a human character
Fables	Short stories illustrating a moral through a pithy maxim or clever story; features animals & inanimate objects

The Upa-Puranas

• Due to the extent of reach of Puranas, a new sub-genre called Upa-Puranas or minor Puranas came into being
• There are about 19 minor puranas and are based on 5 major subjects by Amarasimha (Sanskrit lexicographer of the Gupta period).

Sarga	Creation of the universe
Pratisarga	Periodic cycle of creation and destruction
Manvantra	Periods of Manu’s lifetime
Vansa (Chandra & Surya)	Genealogies of solar & lunar dynasties
Vanshanucharita	Dynastic histories of kings